Indonesian culture

Indonesia has about 300 ethnic groups, each with cultural identities developed over Centuries, and influenced by Indian, Arabic, Chinese, and European sources. Traditional Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and mythology, as do wayang kulit (shadow puppet) performances. Textiles Such as batik, ikat, ulos and songket are created across Indonesia in styles That Vary by region. The most dominant influences on Indonesian architecture have traditionally been Indian; however, Chinese, Arabic, and European architectural influences have been significant.

Sports in Indonesia are Generally male-orientated and spectator sports are Often associated with illegal gambling. [140] The most popular sports are badminton and football. Indonesian players have won the Thomas Cup (the world championship of men's team badminton) thirteen of the twenty-six times That it has been held since 1949, as well as numerous Olympic Medals since the sport gained full Olympic status in 1992. Its women have won the Uber Cup, the female equivalent of the Thomas Cup, twice, in 1994 and 1996. Liga Indonesia is the country's premier football club league. Traditional sports include sepak takraw, and bull racing in Madura. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, Such as, caci in Flores, and Pasola in Sumba. Pencak Silat is an Indonesian martial art.

Indonesian cuisine varies by region and is based on Chinese, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents. [141] Rice is the main staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (Notably chili), coconut milk, fish and chicken are fundamental ingredients. [142] Indonesian traditional music includes gamelan and keroncong. Dangdut is a popular contemporary genre of pop music That draws influence from Arabic, Indian, and Malay folk music. [Citation needed] The Indonesian film industry's popularity peaked in the 1980s and dominated Cinemas in Indonesia, [143] although it Declined significantly in the early 1990s. [144] Between 2000 and 2005, the number of Indonesian films released each year has steadily Increased. [143]

The oldest evidence of writing in Indonesia is a series of Sanskrit inscriptions dated to the 5th century CE. Important figures in modern Indonesian literature include: Dutch author Multatuli, WHO criticized the treatment of the Indonesians under Dutch colonial rule; Sumatrans Muhammad Yamin and Hamka, WHO were the resource persons Influential pre-independence Nationalist writers and politicians; [145] and proletarian writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesia's most famous novelist. [146] Many of Indonesia's peoples have strongly rooted oral traditions, the which help to define and preserve Their cultural identities. [147]

Media freedom in Indonesia Increased considerably after the end of President Suharto's rule, During the which the now-defunct Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media and restricted foreign media. [148] The TV market includes ten national commercial networks, and provincial networks That Compete with public TVRI. Private radio stations carry news updates from Their bulletins and foreign broadcasters supply programs. At a reported 25 million users in 2008, [149] Internet usage was estimated at 12.5% ​​in September 2009. [150]

More than 30 million cell phones are sold in Indonesia each year, and 27 percent of Them are local brands

Demographics in Indonesia

The population of Indonesia According to the 2010 national census is 237.6 million, [3] with population growth is still high at 1.9 percent. [118] 58% of the population lives on Java, [3] the world's most populous island. [119] Despite a fairly effective family planning program has been in place That since the 1960s, the population is expected to grow to around 254 million by 2020 and 288 million by 2050. [120]

There are around 300 distinct native ethnicities in Indonesia, and 742 different languages ​​and dialects. [121] Most Indonesians are descended from Austronesian-speaking peoples can be traced Whose languages ​​to Proto-Austronesian (PAn), the which possibly originated in Taiwan. Another major grouping are Melanesians, WHO inhabit eastern Indonesia. [122] The largest ethnic group is the Javanese, WHO comprise 42% of the population, and are politically and culturally dominant. [123] The Sundanese, ethnic Malays, and Madurese are the largest non-Javanese groups. [124] A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities. [125] Harmonious Society is largely, although social, religious and ethnic tensions have triggered horrendous violence. [126] Chinese Indonesians are an ethnic minority Influential comprising 3-4% of the population. [127] Much of the country's privately owned commerce and wealth is Chinese-Indonesian-controlled study, [128] the which has Contributed to considerable resentment, and even anti-Chinese violence

The official national language, Indonesian, a form of Malay, is Universally taught in schools, and consequently is spoken by Nearly every Indonesian. It is the language of business, politics, national media, education, and academia. It is based on the prestige of Malay Dialect, that of the Johor-Riau Sultanate, the which for Centuries Had been the lingua franca of the archipelago, standards of the which are the official languages ​​in Singapore, Malaysia and Brunei. It was Promoted by Indonesian nationalists in the 1920s, and declared the official language under the Indonesian name on the Proclamation of Independence in 1945. Most Indonesians speak at least one of the Several hundred local languages ​​and dialects, Often as Their first language. Of these, Javanese is the most widely spoken as the language of the largest ethnic group. [102] On the other hand, Papua has over 270 indigenous Papuan and Austronesian languages, [130] in a region of about 2.7 million people.
While religious Freedom is stipulated in the Indonesian constitution, [131] the government Officially recognizes only six Religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. [132] Although it is not an Islamic state, Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority nation, with 86.1% of Indonesians being Muslim According to the 2000 census. [102] On May 21, 2011 the Indonesian Council of Sunni-Shia (Muhsin) was established. The council AIMS to hold gatherings, Dialogues and social activities. It was the answer of violence committed in the name of religion. [133] The majority of Muslims in Indonesia are Sunni. 9% of the population was Christian, 3% Hindu, and 2% Buddhist or other. Most Indonesian Hindus are Balinese, [134] and most Buddhists in modern-day Indonesia are ethnic Chinese. [135] Though now minority Religions, Hinduism and Buddhism Remain the defining influences in Indonesian culture. Islam was first adopted by Indonesians in northern Sumatra in the 13th century, through the influence of traders, and Became the country's dominant religion by the 16th century. [136] Roman Catholicism was Brought to Indonesia by early Portuguese colonialists and missionaries, [137] and the Protestant denominations are largely a result of Dutch Calvinist and Lutheran missionary Efforts During the country's colonial period. [138] A large proportion of Indonesians-Such as the Javanese abangan, Balinese Hindus, and Dayak Christians-practice a less orthodox, syncretic form of Their religion, the which draws on local customs and beliefs

Indonesian economy

Indonesia has a mixed economy in the which Both the private sector and government play significant roles. [94] The country is the largest economy in Southeast Asia and a member of the G-20 major economies. [95] Indonesia's estimated gross domestic product (nominal ), as of 2010 was U.S. $ 706.73 billion with estimated nominal per capita GDP was U.S. $ 3.015, and per capita GDP PPP was U.S. $ 4.394 (international dollars). [96] June 2011: At the World Economic Forum on East Asia, the Indonesian president said Indonesia Will be in the top ten countries with the strongest economy within the next decade. The gross domestic product (GDP) is almost Rp1 trillion ($ 117.6 million) and the debt ratio to the GDP is 26 percent. [97] The industrial sector is the economy's largest and accounts for 46.4% of GDP (2010), this is Followed by services (37.1%) and agriculture (16.5%). However, since 2010, the service sector has employed more people than other sectors, accounting 48.9% of the total labor force, this has been Followed by agriculture (38.3%) and industry (12.8%). [98] Agriculture, however, Had been The country's largest employer for Centuries. [99] [100]

According to the World Trade Organization data, Indonesia was the 27th Biggest exporting country in the world in 2010, moving up three places from a year before. [101] Indonesia's main export markets (2009) are Japan (17:28%), Singapore (11:29% ), the United States (10.81%), and China (7.62%). The major suppliers of imports to Indonesia are Singapore (24.96%), China (12:52%), and Japan (8.92%). In 2005, Indonesia ran a trade surplus with export revenues of U.S. $ 83.64 billion and import expenditure of U.S. $ 62.02 billion. The country has extensive natural resources, including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper, and gold. Indonesia's major imports include machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, and foodstuffs. And the country's major export commodities include oil and gas, electrical appliances, plywood, rubber, and Textiles

 In the 1960s, the economy deteriorated drastically as a result of political instability, a young and inexperienced government, and economic nationalism, the which resulted in severe poverty and hunger. By the time of Sukarno's Downfall in the mid-1960s, the economy was in chaos with 1.000% annual inflation, shrinking export revenues, crumbling infrastructure, factories operating at minimal capacity, and negligible investment. Following President Sukarno's Downfall in the mid-1960s, the New Order administration Brought a degree of discipline to economic policy Quickly That Brought inflation down, stabilized the currency, rescheduled foreign debt, and attracted foreign aid and investment. (See Berkeley Mafia). Indonesia was until recently Southeast Asia's only member of OPEC, and the 1970s oil price Raises provided an export revenue windfall That Contributed to sustaining high economic growth rates, averaging over 7% from 1968 to 1981. [103] Following Further reforms in the late 1980s , [104] foreign investment flowed into Indonesia, particularly into the rapidly developing export-oriented manufacturing sector, and from 1989 to 1997, the Indonesian economy grew by an average of over 7%. [105] [106]
Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the Asian financial crisis of 1997-98. Against the U.S. dollar, the rupiah dropped from about Rp. 2.600 to a low point of 14.000, and the economy shrank by 13.7%. [107] The rupiah stabilised in the Rp. 8.000 to 10.000 range, [108] and a slow but significant economic recovery has ensued. However, political instability, slow economic reform, and corruption slowed the recovery. [7] [8] Transparency International, for example, Indonesia has since ranked below 100 in its Corruption Perceptions Index. [109] [110] Nevertheless, GDP growth averaged 5% of the between 2004 and 2006. [111] The Growth, unfortunately, was not widely Able to Make a real impact toward unemployment and poverty, particularly due to the stagnant wages and rapid hikes in food, oil and gas prices. [112] [ 113] Since 2007, however, with the improvement in banking sector and domestic consumption, the national economic growth has been 6% Annually [114] [115] [116] and this helped the country weather the global recession from 2008 to 2009. [117 ] As of 2010, an estimated 13.3% of the population was living below poverty line, and the unemployment rate was 7.1%

Indonesia's Biota and environment

Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography, support the world's second highest level of biodiversity (after Brazil), [79] and its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian and Australasian species. [80] The islands of the Sunda Shelf ( Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) were the resource persons once linked to the Asian mainland, and have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large Such species as the tiger, rhinoceros, orangutan, elephant, and leopard, were the resource persons once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically. Forests cover approximately 60% of the country. [81] In Sumatra and Kalimantan, these are predominantly of Asian species. However, the forests of the Smaller, and more densely populated Java, have largely been removed for Human Habitation and agriculture. Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku-having been long separated from the continental landmasses-have developed Their own unique flora and fauna. [82] Papua was part of the Australian landmass, and is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to That of Australia, including over 600 bird species. [83]
Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total endemic species, with 36% of its 1.531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic. [84] Indonesia's 80.000 kilometers (50.000 mi) of coastline are surrounded by tropical seas That Contribute to the country's high level of biodiversity. Indonesia has a range of sea and coastal Ecosystems, including beaches, sand dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and Small Island Ecosystems. [9] Indonesia is one of the Coral Triangle countries with the world's greatest diversity of coral reef fish with more than 1.650 species in eastern Indonesia only. [85] The British naturalist, Alfred Wallace, described a dividing line the between the distribution and peace of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species. [86] Known as the Wallace Line, it runs roughly north-south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, the between Borneo and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait, the between Lombok and Bali. West of the line the flora and fauna are more Asian; moving east from Lombok, They are increasingly Australian. In his 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago, Wallace described numerous species unique to the area. [87] The region of the between his line and islands of New Guinea is now termed Wallacea. [86]
Indonesia's high population and rapid Industrialization present serious environmental issues, the which are Often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance. [88] Issues include large-scale deforestation (much of it illegal) and related wildfires Causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanization and economic development, including water pollution, traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services. [88 ] Deforestation and the destruction of Peatlands the make Indonesia the world's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases. [89] Habitat destruction threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species of Mammals Identified by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as Threatened, and 15 Identified as critically endangered, including the Sumatran Orangutan. [90]
Jasmine (Jasminum sambac) is the national flower of Indonesia, [91] together with Moon Orchid (Phalaenopsis amabilis) and Padma Giant Rafflesia (Rafflesia arnoldii). All three were the resource persons chosen on World Environment Day in 1990. [92] [93] On the other carrion Occasion Flower (Titan Arum) was also added as puspa together with the rare Rafflesia. Each of Indonesian Provinces also have updates from floral Their Emblems.

geography Indonesia

Indonesia lies the between latitudes 11 ° S and 6 ° N, and longitudes 95 ° E and 141 ° E. It consists of 17.508 islands, about 6.000 of the which are inhabited. [69] These are Scattered over both sides of the equator. The largest are Java, Sumatra, Borneo (shared with Malaysia and Brunei), New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea), and Sulawesi. Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on Borneo, Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, and East Timor on the island of Timor. Indonesian shares across the narrow Straits of maritime borders with Singapore, Malaysia, and the Philippines to the north, and with Australia to the south. The capital, Jakarta, is on Java and is the nation's largest city, Followed by Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, and Semarang. [70]
At 1,919,440 square kilometers (741.050 sq mi), Indonesia is the world's 16th-largest country in terms of land area. [71] Its average population density is 134 people per square kilometer (347 per sq mi), 79th in the world, [ 72] although Java, the world's most populous island, [73] has a population density of 940 people per square kilometer (2.435 per sq mi). At 4.884 meters (16.024 ft), Puncak Jaya in Papua is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra its largest lake, with an area of ​​1.145 square kilometers (442 sq mi). The country's largest rivers are in Kalimantan, and include the Mahakam and Barito; Such rivers are communication and transport links the between the island's river settlements

Indonesia's location on the edges of the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian Tectonic plates makes it the site of numerous and frequent Earthquakes Volcanoes. Indonesia has at least 150 active Volcanoes, [75] including Krakatoa and Tambora, Both Famous for Their devastating eruptions in the 19th century. The Eruption of the Toba Supervolcano, approximately 70.000 years ago, was one of the largest eruptions ever, and a global catastrophe. Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 tsunami killed an estimated 167.736 That in northern Sumatra, [76] and the Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006. However, volcanic ash is a major contributor to the high agricultural fertility Historically That has sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali. [77]

Lying along the equator, Indonesia has a tropical climate, with two distinct monsoonal wet and dry seasons. Average annual rainfall in the lowlands varies from 1.780 to 3.175 millimeters (70-125 in), and up to 6.100 millimeters (240 in) in mountainous regions. Mountainous areas-particularly in the west coast of Sumatra, West Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua-receive the highest rainfall. Generally humidity is high, averaging about 80%. Temperatures Vary little throughout the year; the average daily temperature range of Jakarta is 26-30 ° C (79-86 ° F).

Building pRosperity

Government and politics

 

Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitary state, power is concentrated in the central government. Following the resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesian political and governmental structures have undergone major reforms. Four Amendments to the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia [45] have revamped the executive, judicial, and legislative branches. [46] The president of Indonesia is the head of state, commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of Ministers, the WHO are not required to be elected members of the legislature. The 2004 presidential election was the first in the which the people directly elected the president and vice president. [47] The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms. [48]
The highest representative body at national level is the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating the president, and formalizing broad Outlines of state policy. It has the power to impeach the president. [49] The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council (DPR), with 560 members, and the Regional Representative Council (DPD), with 132 members. [50] The House of Representatives passes legislation and monitors the executive branch; party-aligned members are elected for five-year terms by proportional representation. [46] Reforms since 1998 have markedly Increased the Parliament's role in national governance. [51] The DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management. [52]
Most civil Disputes Appear before a State Court (District Court); Heard appeals are before the High Court (High Court). The Supreme Court (Supreme Court) is the country's highest court, and the final Cessation Hears appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court, the which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; a State Administrative Court (Constitutional Court) to Hear administrative law cases against the government; a Constitutional Court (Constitutional Court) to Hear Disputes Concerning Legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of state institutions; and a Religious Court (religious court) to deal with cases codified Sharia Law

Foreign relations and military

 

Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitary state, power is concentrated in the central government. Following the resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesian political and governmental structures have undergone major reforms. Four Amendments to the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia [45] have revamped the executive, judicial, and legislative branches. [46] The president of Indonesia is the head of state, commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of Ministers, the WHO are not required to be elected members of the legislature. The 2004 presidential election was the first in the which the people directly elected the president and vice president. [47] The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms. [48]
The highest representative body at national level is the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating the president, and formalizing broad Outlines of state policy. It has the power to impeach the president. [49] The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council (DPR), with 560 members, and the Regional Representative Council (DPD), with 132 members. [50] The House of Representatives passes legislation and monitors the executive branch; party-aligned members are elected for five-year terms by proportional representation. [46] Reforms since 1998 have markedly Increased the Parliament's role in national governance. [51] The DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management. [52]
Most civil Disputes Appear before a State Court (District Court); Heard appeals are before the High Court (High Court). The Supreme Court (Supreme Court) is the country's highest court, and the final Cessation Hears appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court, the which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; a State Administrative Court (Constitutional Court) to Hear administrative law cases against the government; a Constitutional Court (Constitutional Court) to Hear Disputes Concerning Legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of state institutions; and a Religious Court (religious court) to deal with cases codified Sharia Law

Administrative divisions

Administratively, Indonesia consists of 33 Provinces, five of the which have special status. Each province has its own political legislature and governor. The Provinces are subdivided into regencies (districts) and cities (cities), the which are Further subdivided into districts (districts), and again into village groupings (either rural or urban villages). Furthermore, a village is Divided into Several citizen-groups (Pillars-Citizens (RW)) the which are Further Divided into Several neighborhood-groups (Pillars-Neighbor (RT)). Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, the regencies and cities have Become the key administrative units, Providing Responsible for most government services. The village administration level is the most Influential on a citizen's daily life, and handles matters of a village or neighborhood through an elected village chief or headman (village chief).

The Provinces of Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, and West Papua have Greater legislative privileges and a higher degree of autonomy from the central government than the other Provinces. The Acehnese government, for example, has the right to create Certain elements of an independent legal system; in 2003, it instituted a form of Sharia (Islamic law). [66] Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special Region in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting Indonesian Republicans During the Indonesian Revolution. [67] Papua, formerly known as Irian Jaya, was granted special autonomy status in 2001 and was separated into Papua and West Papua in February 2003. [68] Jakarta is the country's special capital region .

seize independence

Indonesia

 

Officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia), is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia comprises 13.466 islands [6] and 33 Provinces. With over 238 million people, it is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected legislature and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, Philippines, Australia, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indonesia is a founding member of ASEAN and a member of the G-20 major economies. The Indonesian economy is the world's largest economy by nominal Eighteenth and Fifteenth largest GDP by purchasing power parity.The Indonesian archipelago has Become an Important trade region since at least the 7th century, Pls Srivijaya and Majapahit then later traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early Centuries CE, and Hindu and Buddhist Kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders Brought Islam, and Christianity and European powers fought Brought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku During the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half Centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change.Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of distinct ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. The Javanese are the largest-and the politically-dominant ethnic group. Indonesia has developed a shared identity defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism including Rebellion against it. Indonesia's national motto, "Unity in Diversity" ("Unity in Diversity" literally, "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity That shapes the country. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has the vast areas of wilderness That supports the world's second highest level of biodiversity. The country is richly endowed with natural resources, yet poverty widespread in contemporary Indonesia Remains

Etymology

The name Indonesia derives from the Latin Indus, and the Greek nesos, meaning "island". [9] The name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. [10] In 1850, George Windsor Earl,'s Home ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians - and, his preference, Malayunesians - for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago". [11] In the same publication, a student of Earl's, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a Synonym for Indian Archipelago. [12] However the, Dutch academics writing in East Indies were the resource persons publications Reluctant to use Indonesia. Instead, They used the terms Malay Archipelago (Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de Oost); and Insulinde. [13]

From. 1900, the name Indonesia Became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and Indonesian Nationalist groups adopted it for political expression. [13] Adolf Bastian, of the University of Berlin, popularized the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels , 1884-1894. The first Indonesian scholar to use the name was Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara), Pls he established a press bureau in the Netherlands with the name Indonesisch Press-bureau in 1913

History

Fossilized remainss of Homo erectus, popularly known as the "Java Man", suggest the Indonesian archipelago That was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago. [15] Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45.000 years ago. [16] Austronesian peoples, the WHO form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and as They spread through the archipelago, confined the native Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions. [17] Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE , [18] allowed villages, towns, and small Kingdoms to Flourish by the 1st century CE. Indonesia's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including links with Indian Kingdoms and China, the which were the resource persons established Several Centuries BCE. [19] Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history. [20]The nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's Banda Islands. Once one of the World's Most Valuable commodities, it drew the first European colonial powers to Indonesia.From the 7th century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism were the resource persons That imported with it. [21] Between the eighth and 10th Centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist and Hindu Mataram dynasties Sailendra thrived and Declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments Such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much of Indonesia. [22]Although Muslim traders first Traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the earliest evidence of Islamized Populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra. [23] Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, the which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java. [24] The first regular contact the between Europeans and the peoples of Indonesia began in 1512, Pls Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrao, sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and Cubeb pepper in Maluku. [25] Dutch and British traders Followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and Became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony. [26]For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous outside of coastal strongholds; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to Become Indonesia's current boundaries. [27] Despite major internal political, social and sectarian divisions During the National Revolution, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in Their fight for independence. During Japanese occupation of World War II ended Dutch rule, [28] and encouraged the Indonesian independence movement Previously suppressed. [29] A later UN report Stated That Died four million people in Indonesia as a result of Famine and forced labor During the Japanese occupation. [30] Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno, an Influential Nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed president. [31] The Netherlands tried to reestablish Their rule, and an armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally Recognized Indonesian independence [32] (with the exception of the Dutch territory of West New Guinea, the which was incorporated into Indonesia following the 1962 New York Agreement, and the UN-Mandated Act of Free Choice of 1969

 Indonesia Sukarno moved from democracy Towards authoritarianism, and maintained his power base by balancing the Opposing forces of the military and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI). [34] An attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by the army, the WHO led a violent anti-Communist purge, During the which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively Destroyed. [35] Around 500,000 people are estimated to have been killed. [36] The head of the military, General Suharto, out-maneuvered the politically Weakened Sukarno, and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His New Order administration [37] was supported by the U.S. government, [38] and encouraged foreign direct investment in Indonesia, the which was a major factor in the subsequent three Decades of substantial economic growth. However, the authoritarian "New Order" was widely accused of corruption and suppression of political Opposition. [39]

Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the late 1990s Asian financial crisis. [40] This popular Increased Discontent with the New Order and led to popular protest across the country. Suharto resigned on 21 May 1998. [41] In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after a twenty-five-year military occupation That was marked by International Condemnation of repression of the East Timorese. [42] Since Suharto's resignation, a strengthening of democratic processes has included a regional autonomy program, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, Social Unrest, corruption, terrorism and slowed the progress, however, in the last five years the economy has performed strongly. Although relations Among different religious and ethnic groups are largely Harmonious, Discontent and sectarian violence has occurred. [43] A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005